Authors: Shafia Baig and Suzanne E. White
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Table of Contents
Concept Map
An ever-growing field of research within computers is the study of the interaction between humans and computers. There are some people who feel very well integrated with the use of computers, while others feel estranged. Hence, what makes a computer friendly or unfriendly? This question is central for companies who manufacture computers, products, and software. Human and computer interaction (HCI) is entirely user-based. There is an increase in awareness in HCI and that the design of computers and its interface is crucial for its efficiency and acceptability. The aim of this paper is to inform the reader of different factors related to HCI, by discussing and giving examples of the user, graphical interfaces, ergonomics and the physical design of the computer.
If people are not alienated from computers as well as its various functions (i.e. the Internet, word-processing programs), why is it widely believed in engineering, psychological, and sociological spheres that the physical design of computers dictates how a user approaches and manipulates the machine?
The computer user has now become one focus of the designing of a machine. There are many factors which define the computer user, and how he or she will approach any machine, in this case computers, is crucial to the industrial design industry. In Nicholas Negroponte's book Being Digital, the author tries to give a picture of what the current personal computer owner is like and needs. In discussing the future of the computer, Negroponte suggests that soon "you may prefer to download them into your laptop, palmtop, or someday into your perfectly flexible one-hundredth-of-an-inch-thick, full-color, massively high-resolution, large-format, waterproof display (which just happens to look exactly like a sheet of paper and smell like one, too, if that's what turns you on)" (Negroponte, 56). Through this futuristic notion of the computer, Negroponte alludes to the idea that users want simplicity first and foremost, and feel that smaller is better. If a computer can be created to simulate a sheet of paper, it will hearken back to the traditional form of communication, which is the book. Negroponte also puts forward the allegorical concept of how, in this example, multimedia, can be manipulated to be viewed as a more traditional part of life, like the top of desk. Even though multimedia, which is a software program, is designed to be quick and save time, "[it is] a living room experience, because the apparatus is so clunky...Multimedia will become more book-like, something with which you can curl up in bed and either have a conversation or be told a story" (Negroponte, 71). This analogy, which serves to create the image of multimedia as friendly and comforting, reaches back again to making the computer fit into the non-electronic society by making it resemble as much as possible to more common, easier to use inventions, such as the book.
When Negroponte says "Understanding computers is about as easy as understanding a bank statement" (Negroponte, 89), he most certainly describes the common frustration of deciphering technological terminology. The bank statement, a document that should be simple, still confuses those who have held bank accounts for several years. For any user, the main area of concern is usability. There are many different ways in which experts working in the fields of define usability. According to Steve Portiagal, a consultant with GVO, a product development firm that designs products and services based on cultural insights, usability has three commonly recognized components. Functionality ensures that the computer will solve the correct problem, ergonomics assures the elimination of physical and psychological problems that may arise from the use of the product, and cognitive fit is the product's accessible and supportive nature (Portigal). However, cultural fit is the element that is often ignored in designing a product. Cultural fit is important as it will "connect with the emotions of users, link to the producing brand, link to the expectations of the customers, and provide and organizing vision of what the product is about, having and increased likelihood of achieving market success" (Portigal). Culture is important because it defines the way in which people explain the world, how they solve problems, and how they work (Portigal). Within culture are discovery and synthesis. Discovery focuses on an understanding of customer behaviour, an ethnographic standpoint that encourages looking at contradictions, while synthesis categorizes these behaviours, creating symbolic models as an explanation. These symbols use phrases, three-dimensional forms, mock ads, metaphors and principles to relay how the computer user defines his or her computer experience.
The usability of a computer gains extensive importance when for example, Web surfers access websites that are poorly constructed. Jared Spool, founding principal of User Interface Engineering, maintains that the physical appearances of websites are crucial to the ease with which people can access information (Spool). He maintains that longer pages packed with information help searchers much better, than short pages that eliminate scrolling.
With culture as the foundation, users still need to be identified in a much more specific manner in order to ascertain their needs. As Shackel states, the overuse of the term user readily causes the computer industry to forget that "there is not just one man/computer communication gap to be bridged but many" (Heaton and Sinclair, 1988). The division of users can be based on the frequency of which users occupy a computer, the computer expertise of the user, the knowledge of each task tackled, trained users versus untrained users, and finally the comprehensive understanding of the system in its entirety (Heaton and Sinclair, 1988). In Alan Cooper's About Face: The Essentials of User Interface Design, the user's goals are attributed to his or her occupation. To illustrate this, he points out that the accounting clerk, who would probably want software material that properly invoices is not only looking for that, but as well a means to "not looking stupid, not making any big mistakes, getting an adequate amount of work done, [and] having fun (or at least not being too bored" (Cooper, 1995). As well, the ability of a computer user can also be affected by a variety of other factors, such as physical disability, and access to electronic resources.
The computer user is defined as well by the type of interactions he or she has with a machine. Edith de Leeuw and William Nicholls II contend that the use of the computer as an aid to, in this case, data collection from interviews, as a factor that affects responses and brings a completely new dimension into data quality (de Leeuw and Nicholls). Computer Assisted Self Interviewing is an innovation in which the role of the interviewer is eliminated. The interviewing program on the screen simply guides the respondent through the questionnaire. There are several advantages to CASI, such as no routing errors, the immediate revision of data, new possibilities of question formulation, the quick availability of results, and most importantly, protection against inappropriate behaviour from interviewers (de Leeuw and Nicholls). However, the computer user, who probably has been exposed to computers in some ways, will be affected by just the presence of the computer. Researchers have pointed out the feeling of less privacy, especially among those who are very unfamiliar with computers. This leads, in many cases, to answers that are deemed socially acceptable (de Leeuws and Nicholls), a fear labelled as the "big brother" reaction. On the other hand, where the user is more comfortable with computers, for example, in the western world where computers are commonplace, the user-respondent would enjoy more privacy and freedom, as they do not have to relay their responses to a middleman, a human interviewer. Moreover, if the theory of social exchange is deemed effective, the user-respondent, in the case of Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing, in which an interviewer types in the responses, will be more confident. This assumption is made on the basis that a computer-savvy, confident interviewer will relay some of this ease with computers over to the respondent (de Leeuws and Nicholls).
The issues of gender identities and feelings are dealt with in detail by Sherry Turkle, in her landmark book, Life on the Screen, in which she looks at the multiple personalities that are given birth to onscreen. In terms of feelings, in the 1980s, students at MIT suggested that in order for computers to understand humans and be emphathetic, the computers would have to "grow up with attachments and feel pain" (Turkle, 1995). Students that had gone through horrible experiences, for example, watching a loved mother suffer from cancer, asked "What could a computer know about chemotherapy? It might know what it was in some medical terminology sense. But even, like, if it knew that you lost your hair, how it could it know what something like that means to a person?" (Turkle, 1995). This clearly demonstrates that this young student could not confide in a computer designed for psychotherapy; a computer would not "understand". Gender online is subject of many debates, and has different ways of being explained. In direct relation with machines, Multi-User Dimensions seem to draw these distinctions. For some men, being a female online allows for assertive, even aggressive confrontational behaviour, for which men are labelled as "bastards" in real life (Turkle, 1995). For Zoe, however, her computer use made her feel stronger, since being confrontational and disagreeing with men was not part of her American South upbringing. Being firm was a male attribute that could only be practiced online (Turkle, 1995).
When discussing HCI, the focus is on all aspects of the human use of computers to improve the usability of information technology systems. The discipline known as ergonomics is in large part a very important field of study within HCI. Shackel, (1991) discusses how the prime purpose of Ergonomics is to study and understand the situation of people at work and play, and thus to be able to improve that environment. Furthermore, he defines Ergonomics as the study of relation between man and his occupation, equipment and environment, and particularly the application of anatomical, physiological and psychological knowledge to the problems arising therefrom.
The actual physical design of computer parts affects how a person interacts with the computer. The goal of ergonomics is to optimize the human-machine and human-environment relationships by basically, "Fitting the system to the User" (Shackel, 1991). This is especially important for companies who want an increase in productivity. Many works have been done that suggest that human factor improvements can yield substantial productivity gains, or cost savings.
Shackel, 1991 explained a situation where there was a recall of keyboards due to bad design. In 1993, IBM's PCjr was the object of widespread complaints. Most of the complaints were directed towards the computer's "chiclet" keyboard with its small keys that were very awkward to use. IBM offered an exchange of old keyboards for better designed new ones at no extra charge. One can imagine the cost incurred by IBM for ignoring human factors design.
In keeping with human factors design, according to Cooper, 1995 , the mouse is not here to stay. The first computer-pointing device, the light pen was used like a pen in your hand to point at the computer screen. The truth was, it was definitely unusable with a computer. When humans write, we use fine motor skills of our hand to manipulate the writing device we are using. To do this effectively, we must rest the heel of our hand otherwise our movements are easily swayed. Our finger motions drift unless we provide our hand with a firm foundation. Furthermore, it is also difficult to draw on a vertical surface while resting your hand on it. Hence, tools like the mouse were created for easier manipulation by users. With the heel of your hand resting on a table top, one's fingers can move the mouse with great accuracy precisely place the cursor in a specific spot. However, the fact that one can enter handwritings with a pen and not with a mouse is enough to say that the pen is more accurately manipulated. It is only when the writing surfaces is vertical that the mouse is a better tool. When computer screens become horizontal like paper on a desktop, pen-like devices will have a resurgence and mouses will become obsolete. These changes are based on how human bodies are constructed and how we can best manipulate objects.
Ergonomically sound computer stations are extremely important for users. Because of repetitive motions such as clicking of the mouse, continually staring at a screen or typing, this can result in serious health hazards. Repetitive Strain Injuries such as Carpel Tunnel Syndrome can occur due to the swelling of tissues in the wrist. Ergonomically sound products such as wrist supports or glare screens to avoid eyestrain are very important for those whose time is widely spent on computers. Users who use such products find their computer time more efficient since any physical problems while using the computer or in the long-run is diminished. To decrease the possibility of potential physical problems, the "Voice Dictation" module allows users to dictate into applications. This application receives and displays text from a user's speech. The "Voice Dictation" object employs an invisible "virtual" edit box to receive the text whenever the user speaks a word. The application employing the Voice Dictation object is then notified that the text in the edit box has changed, and how it has changed, so that it can display any changes to the user. http://www.research.microsoft.com/stg/docs/sapiintro2vdict.html Voice Dictation provides a considerable amount of functionality. It provides automatic text formatting such as capitalization, spacing, limited commands, and a Graphic User Interface so users can correct the dictation engine. http://www.research.microsoft.com/stg/docs/sapiintro2vdict.html.
Along with easier manipulation of machines, the physical appearance of a computer seems to have an affect on how we approach computer use. In an effort to attract users to computers, companies like Mattel have offered attractive computers catered towards young boys and girls. The kiddie computers come in two styles. The Barbie model for girls comes in silver with "pink and purple floral accents," plus a flower-bedecked mouse, mousepad and digital camera. The Hot Wheels version for boys, in contrast, comes in blue and yellow with the Hot Wheels flame logo, but no digital camera. (http://www.salonmagazine.com/tech/log/1999/08/04/barbie/index.html) However, industry veterans have questioned the practice of resorting to flowers, bows, busty blond dolls and gender stereotypes to convince girls that computers aren't just for geeky boys. It is believed that the physical design of these kiddie computers will attract children to buy them. The computer would look more "user-friendly". The physicality of the computer seems to make children feel more at ease with using it. It is not a machine just for adults, but similar to a toy that children would want to "play" with.
Graphic design, industrial design, and visual interaction design are all current computer/technology catchwords, which have become meaningless to some as they are applied to a variety of technical and/or computer-based trades. Brad Weed recognizes this in his definition of graphic design as "an important part of the process of software interaction design" rich in history, "[but] has less to offer in the way of human interaction and the incorporation of engineering constraints"(Wood, 1996). Industrial design combines human factors, engineering, manufacturing processes, marketing and aesthetics. It is the creation of useful, desirable products. In the evolution of the term "design", the focus of industrial design, which includes logos and advertising ends, serves as a basis for visual interaction design. Interaction design is intrinsic to human-computer interaction as it uses the graphical interface as a way to visually communicate; in other words, it is the industrial design of the software industry. It enables people to complete complicated tasks through visual communication (Weed, 1996). The creation of interaction design is necessary in order to include the human element in the creation of software, and operating systems. In many graphic design classes, professors may focus on ergonomics and engineering, yet fail to realize that simple usability is key to creating designs that the public will accept.
Having ergonomically sound computer products is crucial for a more suitable working environment. Users need to feel at ease while on the computer without having to worry about potential risks and health problems. It is unfortunate that computer manufacturers don't make computers so that additional product for comfort and safety don't have to be bought. Since many ergonomic computer products are sold separately, it is important to sell them at a reasonable price. Most computer ergonomic products are quite expensive and cannot be afforded by some segments of the population such as students who are high users of computers. Human-computer interaction can be enhanced by the use of ergonomic products. Hence, it is important for computer manufacturers to make computers ergonomically sound or that ergonomic products be sold at a more reasonable price.
Evidently, the computer user is one of the most important factors in the creation of a computer. The most obvious solution to the problems that occur when users cannot manipulate their computers to their satisfaction is to include them in the creation process. More observatory or purchase studies need to be carried out, and the current complaint of human factors engineers that they are ignored needs to be recognized in order not to alienate computer users. As was aforementioned, the user should not be typified, and computer and software companies should explore all characteristics, such as skill.
When Mattel created the Barbie and Hot Wheels computer, it is not sufficient to say that the masculinization or the feminization of computers will attract a specific segment of the population. Justine Cassel, professor at the MIT Media Lab and co-author of "From Barbie to Mortal Kombat," points out that Lego's experiment with pink Legos was a failure; just because you cover a traditionally boy product with girlish clichés doesn't guarantee girls will like it. And what messages will a girl get from the fashion typing software? As Cassel muses, "Maybe the color of the computer is going to get the girl to turn it on. That's great. But once she turns it on is she going to do something no one else is going to do?" http://www.salonmagazine.com/tech/log/1999/08/04/barbie/index.html) Instead of having a gender-typed computer, a neutral design with neutral software will help children break away from gender stereotypes instilled by companies who create such machinery.
As mentioned by Spool in his interview on usability, graphics are an important part of human-computer interaction. However, it is important that graphic usage, especially in websites, be used adequately and liberally in an effort not to overwhelm the user. Especially when the user's goal is the acquisition of information, the construction of pages with a large amount of hyperlinks is not the best, as it causes the searcher to lose his or her "scent" (Spool, 1999).
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