Authors: Matthew Beall and Steve Topp
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Question: Why is the internet such a powerful force (both socially and technologically) in changing literacy?
In our paper, we will first look at definitions of literacy, and then, in that context, examine four possible answers to our question. The first answer we will examine is that it is the power and seductiveness of the medium itself that is changing literacy. In this section, we argue that the power of the internet to allow people to communicate make it an indispensable resource for literate people to share what they write. As new forms of communication are available through the internet, these will, in turn, change literacy.
Second, we will examine the possibility that any change in technology that can deliver text-based communication will impact literacy. We will look at the history of interaction between literacy and the technologies used to read and write. We will then look at the internet in this context, and see how it, as a textual communication medium, will have an effect on the future of literacy.
Thirdly, we will examine the internet as a destructive, but unstoppable force towards a new literacy. We will look at the negative impacts that the internet is having on literacy, and show how many of these changes cannot be stopped or reversed.
Finally, we will conclude that the social drive towards the internet is uncontrollable on an individual or institutional level. If there is a future for literacy, it must be one that includes the internet. We will examine the ramifications of this conclusion upon ourselves as a society, and draw up policy recommendations based on these conclusions.
Traditionally, literacy has been thought of as the ability to read and write. This definition, however, is deceptively simple. Reading is not merely the scanning of a page to make sense of the words written there, nor is writing merely the act of typing on a keyboard, or scratching a pen on paper. "Underlying these basic, seeming definitive physical operations lie other processes." (Birkerts, p.110)
So, it remains to ask ourselves, before we can continue any further, what do reading and writing mean? What have they meant traditionally, and is that meaning any different now, in a computer age?
Reading, argues Birkerts, is an ongoing process. If asked what you are reading, you might respond with a book title, even if, at the moment, you were not actively engaged in the physical activity of reading (p. 96). While reading begins with the physical process of processing words on a page or screen, it continues even when that physical source is not there in front of you. Your mind continues to examine and experience that which you have read during breaks in reading, between the putting down of a book, and picking it up again. Similarly, writing is also an ongoing process. A writer cannot write what he or she has not thought. It is a process of thought, recording of thought, and re-evaluation of thought. The evolution of the concepts of reading and writing will be examined later, where we will examine how past technological changes caused a large change in either the process of reading, writing, or both, greatly changing our concept of literacy as a whole.
Some scholars have qualified the term literacy to mean the activities involved in interacting with text, namely reading, writing, and spelling. In this context " 'electronic literacy' refers to literacy activities . . . which are delivered, supported, accessed, or assessed through computers or other electronic means rather than on paper." (Topping) Other academics like Leu have rejected a definition of literacy that is a set of activities to be qualified by a medium or media, but have moved to a dynamic definition. Leu believes that "literacy has become a deictic term; its meaning is continually changing, dependent upon the technological context in which it occurs" (Leu, Caity's).
Another way to look at literacy is in that "it is used to create identity" (Dudfield). It is a state of being able to communicate via text in all its manifestations, and as such, literacy is the foundation of much of our primary school education. The Internet is quickly becoming the most prominent form of textual interaction in the world, and using it demands a new set of skills. More than skill, however, the Internet possesses an ideology and social influence that changes the way in which text is perceived. An acknowledgement of the context of the medium is very important in exploring the nature of literacy there.
As any medium, the Internet has advantages and disadvantages that have socializing effects. Since the Internet is primarily a visual medium and it is not advanced enough to be dependent on video, it is necessarily text-based. As such, literacy is inextricably linked to it and cannot helped but be changed by it.
The internet is an extremely useful tool, being able to combine text, sound and complex visual aids into a cohesive presentation, with the possibility of virtual reality enhancing these abilities in the near future. As such, it can be extremely effective in transmitting ideas to a large audience. The internet is a non-linear, internetworked, multimedia environment: a rich and unique medium offering access to massive amounts of information. It offers a new and perhaps more effective way of communicating ideas, and it can offer an audience of unheard of size and diversity. The literate will be explorers and searchers, they will be critically aware and ready to collaborate. Because of this, the literate will be drawn to multimedia environments, such as the internet, "because they are both powerful and complex, [and] often require us to communicate with others in order to make meaning from them" (Leu, Sarah's).
Dudfield claims that reading and writing have become interactive events, not simple absorption or recital, and that different characteristics and types of literacy activities have developed on the Internet:
While the scope and power of the internet make it appealing to people at large, the possibilities it generates for new experimentations between the writer and the reader, and the potential world-wide audience make it a very appealing medium for literate people who are interested in reading and writing in these new styles. As such, the internet is becoming the launching pad for new literature. With new literature being developed on the internet, using techniques unavailable in traditional literature, the internet cannot help but be a powerful force in transforming literacy.
Earlier in this paper, we discussed how reading and writing are deeper concepts than the physical actions which they describe. Now we will look at how these concepts have been shaped by the technologies used to facilitate them in the past, and examine how the internet, as a new technology, will shape literacy in the future.
From the invention of writing to the printing press to the typewriter and the computer, the entire history of literacy has been dependent on the technical advances that it has used. Traditionally, the act of writing has had several factors which have recently disappeared, however. The most obvious of these is a record of errors made in the writing process. (Birkerts, p. 157) Traditional methods of writing have required that mistakes made be done over. Because of this, authors were more liable to take care with what they wrote, sounding it over in their head, and perhaps out loud, before they put the thought to paper. Today, with word processors, and programs to check spelling and grammar, this activity is much less common. Instead of carefully considering both the original words and any correction, the ease with which ideas can be revised allows ideas to be written down without much forethought, as errors are easily dealt with. This may aid some writers, as ideas can be quickly written down without worrying about the exact wording, it may also cause inferior writing, as less thought may be put into both the original idea and any corrections that were made to it. Also, with the physical record of such errors gone, an author who changed their mind might have difficulty changing it back, if they are unable to locate the original idea. As Birkerts says, "A change in procedure must be at least subtly reflected in the result."
In addition to this, with the proliferation of the written word -- two centuries ago, most people would not have required a bookshelf, while today we have signs on every street corner and labels everywhere else -- there is an unprecedented amount of reading material available. This changes both reading and writing habits. For the reader, it means that they do not read in depth as much as they used to. The focus for the reader is on speed -- they must get to the next book, or the next idea, or they must read it for a deadline. In the past, with the rarity of most written works, a book would be something to read repeatedly, to memorize, and interpret in depth, and "where it does not assume depth, it creates it." (Birkerts, p. 72).
For the writer, in particular the professional writer, this means something completely different. What you write does not necessarily have to be good, or have great merit, but it needs to be marketable to an audience. It takes a large amount of resources for a book to be printed and shipped, and such decisions are business decisions. So, despite any value that a work might have as a piece of literature, it may not aid in it being published over, say, a collection of comic strips or a Howard Stern "novel." Due to this, those who depend on publication to feed, clothe and shelter themselves are forced to cater, at least partially, to the whims of the public and publishers who decide what books make it onto the shelves of bookstores.
While these are all changes which have occurred in the past (some quite recently), we also want to examine how some of these trends might extend into the future. The obvious place for this to occur is on the computer and the world wide web. While these are not exactly new technologies, they have yet to truly impact the world of literacy in the method they are capable of.
What we are witnessing in the remaking of the "modern literary system" at the end of the twentieth century is not so much a technological revolution (which has already occurred) but the public reinvention of intellectual community in its wake (Hesse, p. 29)
The first of these aspects is that the computer is truly contains multimedia content, not just the written word. As such, "for the computer, it does not matter if we write the word "mountain" or if we say it aloud or draw a picture of a mountain." (Toschi, p. 193) What this means is that any document on the Internet is not, as in traditional books, restricted to text and static diagrams. It can have moving text, animated diagrams, and sound elements. With advances in virtual reality, it may someday be able to provide other sensations as well (touch, smell and/or taste). In this way, computerized compositions might vary from their traditional counterparts, which only use the written word.
Another area is hypertext. Hypertext refers to the ability of users to click on text with a mouse, and be transported to another web page with new or different information. This non-linearity is one of the most dramatic and potentially normative aspects of the Internet as a medium. Hypertext, as a non-linear construction, reminds "us that acquiring the discipline to organize one's thoughts into a linear, hierarchical argument is a large part of what we call literate only because the technology of print does not invite other ways to structure and argument, not because that is the natural way we think. Hypertexts provide a means to express ourselves in ways that reflect more directly the complexity of our thinking and the interrelatedness of ideas." (Tierney) In this way, hypertext is positive and liberating, perhaps encouraging more creative and meaningful literary works. Some researchers, however, warn us about some potentially negative effects of the web-like nature of hypertext; for instance: "traditional print documents, like books, encourage us to read deeply, or intensively, about a topic, while digital information environments such as hypertext, multimedia, or the WWW encourage us to explore extensively many unrelated topics at only a superficial level" (Leu, Sarah's). While hypertext is already used for documents such as help instructions or other manuals, it is only beginning to occur as a form of writing on the internet. In allowing for a non-linear reading experience, hypertext allows the reader to interact with the story, deciding what order events occur in, and, possibly what plotlines are followed. If there are multiple plots, some might even be ignored completely. As opposed to traditional methods of reading and writing, hypertext gives the reader some degree of control over what they are reading.
Overlapping both these areas is interactive literacy, where the reader becomes a participant. This is a drastic change from traditional literacy, where the writer would try to overwhelm the reader with a fictional world of their own creation (or interpretation). On the internet, however, it is easy to have the reader involved in deciding the story, whether by hypertext alone, or a mixture of hypertext and other technological tools. It is even possible for the reader to add to or change the story, making the experience for the next reader entirely different. Alternatively, the author could have the story on the internet while writing it, allowing readers of the work in progress to send him or her e-mails with comments and/or suggestions. Various forms of interactive literacy were mentioned in the previous section, so they will not be repeated here.
Thus, it would seem that our ideas of literacy are continuing to change. The act of reading is beginning to include the understanding of multimedia presentations, as opposed to text alone, and reading seems to be moving from a more passive experience of viewing and processing information to a more active role where the reader actually interacts with what they are reading, possibly changing it in the process. On the other hand, the role of the writer seems to be diminishing -- with the writer's duty being shared by the reader, the writer is no longer the power in the reader-writer relationship. Instead of creating an experience for the reader, the writer must now create a framework in which he/she can collaborate with the reader.
It is true that "[t]he Internet is changing what it means to be literate. Traditional reading and writing are but the initial layers of the richer and more complex forms of literacy required in this electronic context." (Leu, Caity's) Isolating the depth and breadth of modern literacy is important because it would allow for a systematised review of the way in which we learn and communicate. This review could then be used to assess the constructive and destructive impacts of new literacy and possibly plan or control the changes that are becoming so linked to advancing technology. Literacy itself is important because it "is a technology that may support certain ways of knowing over others and support certain conventions or norms of interacting" (Tierney).
Literacy is changing at an alarming rate. Personal computers are becoming more and more prevalent in schools and homes, communications networks are proliferating at a fantastic rate, and their sum, the Internet, is moving into a position to displace television as the dominant medium in the Western world. Some critics of the new literacy feel that this is a dangerous path. There are many areas of traditional literacy which are being endangered by the internet, and some say that literacy itself is becoming endangered.
An immediate concern is the amount of information that the internet contains. By increasing the quantity of information, it could further the effect that the propagation of writing has already caused in society -- while people read more different things, they rarely read them in depth or contemplate them, thus valuing the quantity of works read over the quality of the works themselves. In this, we risk increasingly deficient attention spans, and a lack of true interpretation of the information that we find, as we get lost in an ongoing search for the next piece of information. As Birkerts says, "Wisdom is seeing through facts," rather than "the gathering or organization of facts." (p. 75)
Another area of concern is what Birkerts calls "language erosion." (p. 128) Among the concerns here is that plain language will replace the complexity and distinctiveness which currently exists in the written and spoken word. Critics of internet literacy worry that, partially because of the graphics-based nature of the internet, quality arguments and works of literature may be replaced by those that merely look good. An internet page is often judged more by how it looks than what it contains, and as such, good writing might be replaced by catchy "bullets" that make quick points, but have little behind them.
A greater concern is that literacy itself may fall by the wayside. While this currently might seem rediculous, as the internet, though it contains multimedia content, is still text-driven at its core, this idea is not so far fetched. Virtual reality as a technology is still in its infancy, and when it becomes viable both technologically and financially, it could become the main (or sole) means of communication on the internet. If this were to be the case, the internet would cease to be a place of literate interaction, and could become an oral society, with no written works whatsoever. In a society dependent upon computers (such as ours) this could translate into an end of literacy.
In the earlier sections of this paper, we have demonstrated that our society is becoming increasingly computerized. The internet has become a part of many people's lives, and its numbers are increasing daily. Now we will look at some of the ramifications of the internet's popularity.
One possible benefit is that the internet's popularity may attract a larger audience to works of literature. With an increased ability to transmit ideas via the computer, it could help to spur an interest in reading and writing, thus improving the level of literacy in society as a whole.
On a serious level, the education system must fully realise that being literate will require our students to acquire new and increasingly sophisticated navigational strategies. (Topping) Topping also points out that "being literate is quickly changing from an end state to an endless developmental process" and that literacy on the Internet "will require new forms of critical thinking and reasoning about the information that appears in this venue." Another educational challenge facing educators as they teach students to effectively use the Internet is helping them become "more aware of the variety of meanings inherent in the multiple media forms in which messages appear" (Topping).
"We are experiencing a historic change in the nature of literacy and learning as digital, multimedia resources enter our world. The World Wide Web (WWW), e-mail, digitized works of children's literature, Myst, electronic chat rooms, MOOs, MUDs, and home pages are all just the beginning of a radical departure from traditional reading and writing experiences." (Leu, Sarah's)
A slight twist on that view is a claim that the changes in literacy, affect change on the Internet: "teachers and children are enriching our instructional worlds by planting new visions for literacy and learning on the Internet, transforming the nature of this new technology" (Leu, Karchmer, & Leu). That is to say that literacy, and the cultural context in which it exists, transforms technology. It is clear, however, that new technologies transform the nature of literacy (Reinking). "We are quickly becoming aware, however, that this is not a one-way street. Just as new technologies change literacy, literacy also changes new technologies within a transactional relationship." (Leu, Karchmer, & Leu) Teachers and children are transforming the Internet by constructing curriculum that reflects the needs and realities of the classroom.
Increasingly, technology is changing faster than our ability to evaluate its utility for literacy by using traditional approaches (Leu, Karchmer, & Leu). In literacy research, it has become difficult, if not impossible, to develop a consistent body of published research within traditional forums before the technology on which a study is based is replaced by an even newer technology. Unless this situation changes, it is likely that traditional research will play a much less important role in defining our understanding of new technologies and new literacies. "We believe this potential may result in a fundamental change in the epistemology of effective literacy instruction. Teachers' envisionments, tested in the realities of actual classroom practice, are likely to become more important in defining effective literacy instruction. (Leu, Karchmer, & Leu) This means that classroom teachers, not researchers, may define the most effective instructional strategies for literacy and learning. Teachers can evaluate instructional effectiveness and quickly spread word about an especially useful strategy on the Internet faster than researchers who currently require substantial time before results are published, often in journals with limited circulation. Our understanding of effective literacy instruction may be formed more often by teachers who use continuously changing technologies on a daily basis and less often by traditional forms of research. (Leu, Karchmer, & Leu)
It is abundantly clear that, for better or for worse, internet literacy is here to stay. As such, it is increasingly important that, espescially during this time of change, literacy is being studied so we can properly equip ourselves for what the future holds.
"How we respond to these important changes [in literacy] will determine our students' ability to succeed in the world that awaits them." (Leu, Sarah's)
Many people know that research needs to be done. Topping states that "[t]he research agenda for electronic literacy is substantial. We believe that the research must include issues of effectiveness, comparative effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness because computer-based learning is relatively expensive and therefore needs to demonstrate high effectiveness if it is to be widely used. What needs to be developed to maximize the exposure and efficacy of Internet literacy is "inexpensive, simple, durable, and compatible hardware coupled with intelligent, interactive, and adaptive software" (Topping).
Related to research is education. It is important that children are able to function as literate adults, and because of this, their schooling will need to reflect the skills they will need to cope with electronic literacy.
As emphasized by many of the authors, the bulk of the impact of the new literacy is centred on the children and their experience growing up with the technology. Iannone states that "many of these new communication forms (e.g., chat sessions, e-mail) involved writing. I reflected back on Leu's statements about "standing on the cusp" between traditional and new forms of literacy and realized that today's students would use written communication for purposes both traditional (e.g., letters) and new (e.g., listservs). This realization impressed upon me the need for developing writing-centred literacy experiences that help students develop traditional and electronic literacy skills."
Classroom instruction on checking about the reliability of internet sites, and the use of hypertext (both in reading and writing). This is because the internet is, essentially unregulated, and information gleaned from it is not necessarily accurate. Hypertext, on the other hand, has the potential to be a powerful literary tool, but in order for this to be the case, readers must feel comfortable reading with hypertext, and writers must know how to use it. This will require new textbooks and software for the classroom, as well as training for teachers who will have to convey information to the students, and be able to handle the technology effectively. The actual classroom instruction should not only consider the reliability of internet information, but the need to place such information in a context. This is necessary to be sure that as readers who will be exposed to extremely large amounts of information, they will actually process and evaluate that information instead of accepting it uncritically.
In addition to this, we need to be sure that traditional literacy skills are not lost. Children need to be taught to evaluate ideas critically, to be sure that they are not so overwhelmed by information that they accept what they are told uncritically. Basic (and advanced) language skills should be reinforced to prevent language erosion.
Traditional language skills are perhaps most important at the present time. Although the internet is a promising medium for new literacy, we cannot become too caught up in equipping our children for electronic literacy. The internet is still a developing technology that may remain a literary technology, or might lose its literary component in the future. If we concentrate too much on the new literacy, ignoring the old, we could inadvertantly contribute to future generations' illiteracy.
As the cost of publishing on the internet is negligible, anybody who wishes to publish something on-line may do so. As internet literature becomes more popular, it will be the advertising of publishing companies, and large names (such as Stephen King) that draw people's attention to on-line literature. As such, quality pieces of literature may go unnoticed, and disappear, as companies find their contents unmarketable (how would you market a James Joyce in hypertext to the general public?), and the writers have not made a name for themselves. These "novels" could easily be lost in a sea of poor quality works by amateur novelists. Thus, some sort of government funding should be set up so that quality (but not necessarily popular) literature has a chance to thrive in this new medium.
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