In the Industrial Age
we went to school
In the Communication Age
Schools can came to us1
Conceptualizing Distance Education
History of Distance Education
Distance Education
The Technology and the Human Factor
Transitions
The Technologies of Computer Distance Education
Distance Education Communication
Selecting Technologies, An Example - University of Phoenix
Access
Technical Supports
Technical Training of the Teachers:
Technical Training of Student
The above quote from the Chronicle of on Line Distance Education and Communication is an example one of the "great promises" of the communication age for the future of education. The rapid advancements of the last few years in communications technology has led to much speculation and experimentation regarding possible educational applications. The quote is of course based on numerous premises which may or may not be true. The root premise is that the advancements in technology and resulting social change, as they apply to schools, will be an improvement. ("The communication age" is better than the 'industrial age"), and school coming to students is better than students going to school.
Predictions and assessments about the changes in education as a result of computer technological advancements offer both pessimistic and optimistic scenarios (Dhall,1995) (Snider, 1996). Optimists extol the availability of information and the comparative quick and inexpensive ability to contact people throughout the world. The critical side ponders the effects of a lack of personal face-to-face contact, the complexity of the technology , hardware and infra-structure expense and the lack of organization and control of the net. Reality probably lies between these opinions, but all appear to agree that computer technology will have a significant impact on education.
Education in general is a huge subject area. On the Internet the available information is also massive. To illustrate the point, a search on the Internet using two different search engines was conducted to compare the number of "hits" received for education as compared to other popular subject areas.
Search Engine # of "hits" for Word searched
Education Sex Computer Internet
| Search Engine | Education | Sex | Computer | Internet |
| Lycos* | 20370 | 20000 | 20096 | 20324 |
| Alta Vista** | 5936603 | 5167031 | 12257253x | 7945280x |
* Lycos Gives # of relevant documents
**Alta Vista Gives # of word counts
x This indicates that the particular search engine would not list the sites
The above search helps illustrate that the WWW is being used in a wide variety of ways regarding education, and further demonstrates that the system is now playing an important role in education.
Our paper will focus on one educational aspect of the Internet. The research paper will examine the social opportunities and barriers that applications of the Internet have for adult post-secondary distance education. In particular the focus will be on identifying and evaluating the requirements of people delivering and the people wanting to attain formally recognized diploma and degree credit courses through Internet technology.
Conceptualizing Distance Education
"Learning is a socially constructed activity and what and how we learn is a product of our social context and the immediate social relationships through which we are learning" ( Lockwood 1994 )2
History of Distance Education
The history of human social interaction involves continuing experiments with the transfer of information across distance and time. Technology is inextricably entwined with knowledge transfer as each successive generation of people has attempted to optimize information exchange through the use of the technologies available to them. Knowledge transferal has been accomplished through demonstration; spoken language; art; writing, (on clay tablets, stone and paper); the printing press; radio; television; and now computer technologies.
As the technologies of knowledge transferal became more and more successful, education moved from an informal holistic approach to a formalized categorical one as a means of organizing an efficient technical transferal of data. The formalizing of knowledge led to institutionalized control as a means of social accreditation and recognition of knowledge. Institutions were limited by their technological structures (ie: the storage of books and mobility of teachers) to fixed geographic locations. Educational institutions became preserves of information (libraries) and knowledgeable people (teachers and researchers).
The technologies of the past necessitated people seeking institutional information to travel to the institution which housed the information. The economic structures of past educational technologies also produced "The higher the fewer" syndrome. The more advanced the knowledge sought , the fewer the institutions there were that were able to provided it.
Distance from the source of information was a significant and often an insurmountable physical barrier for those seeking the information and for those in institutions who wished to disperse it. Building institutions in populous areas, and/or areas which had efficient people moving technologies was a primary means of addressing the problem. For those who still could not access the institutions, other knowledge transferal systems were sought. The term "distance education" or "distance learning", as it is sometimes termed today, evolved to describe the approaches used to surmount the barriers for those who could not physically access the institution.
Institutional-based, distant education programs existed long before the first PC rolled off the assembly line. Distance learning enjoys a heritage facilitated by whatever technologies were available at any given point in history. Americans have romantic images of when the printing press met the pony express. The University of Wisconsin, "one of the oldest and largest distance-delivery programs in the United States, offered its first correspondence course via coach and pony mail in 1891"3 . Yet distance education while better than no education, was limited by the available technology . The technologies and economics of transporting education materials necessitated limiting student access to resources (teachers, libraries, research equipment, etc) as well as they were limited by the reliability of the transportation method itself. (Sorry ma=am, no mail delivery this month, my horse came up lame). As technologies improved, the limitations of distance education decreased, yet access to resources and student isolation remained issues which resulted in site based institutional education being considered preferable to distance education.
The development of computer technology and its applications to communication have brought about a revolution in education. Home study now occurs in a variety of media forms which has increased access to research resources, and inter-activity with other people. The speed of its growth and the promised potential has, for the first time in the history of modern education, people considering distance education as not only equal to institutional learning, but in some cases superior.
Distance Education
Conceptualizing distance education today involves gaining an understanding of the technology that supports it. In the past, distance education technologies evolved at a pace from which it was comparatively easy to study and to draw conclusions from because of the slower pace of technological change. The exponential pace at which computer technology now moves complicates assessing the social impact of distance education. Advancements in the technology occur daily, and the applications for educational change almost as quickly. Examining distance education today is an examination of a moving target, necessitating an examination of the motion and not simply the target.
A potential consequence of the technology could lead to a blending of distance education and institutional based learned. The distinction between the two are already blurred for many course offerings where computer communication technologies are being integrated within institution based programs. It is foreseeable that site location for taking an accredited course may become optional, where a course is not designated as "distance" or "attendance" based and is simply offered and the participant decides if he/she will "go to the institutional site" or "plug in" from home". Some researchers suggest computer technologies will cause education to take forms such as "Hyperlearning" (Perelman,1993) or "Virtual Classrooms"(Hiltz,1994), where computer technologies will restructure the complete mode of delivery of education and redefine learning and accreditation processes. Perelman believes that, "Distance learning is an intermediate step toward a telelearning environment where distance, location, and attendance become arbitrary and largely irrelevant factors in learning."4 Our discussion will focus on current issues in the application of computer technologies to distance learning. For a working definition of distance education we choose one offered by used by S.C. Ehrmann:
Distance Education is instructional delivery that does not constrain the student to be physically present in the same location as the instructor.
Ehrmann also distinguishes between the terms "Distance Education", "Distance Learning" and "Distributed Education" used within the field, "Historically, education meant correspondence study. Today, audio, video, and computer technologies are more common delivery mode. The term Distance Learning is often interchanged with Distance Education. However, this is inaccurate since institutions/instructors control educational delivery while the student is responsible for learning. In other words, Distance Learning is the result of Distance Education. Another term that has experienced some recent popularity is Distributed Education. This term may represent the trend to utilize a mix of delivery modes for optimal instruction and learning.5
For our purpose, we will concentrate on the form of distance education that is conducted through computer technologies called "Computer Mediated Communication" (CMC), although "Computer Based Learning (CBL) is also discussed.
The Technology and the Human Factor
Identifying the social opportunities and barriers of computer technologies distance education will of course focus on human factors. While the technology can be exciting, dazzling and full of potential, our focus will remain on its functionality in the dispersement of Aaccredited@ knowledge to people. This will necessitate some comparison to traditional correspondence structures of distance education. However, the technology offers such a broad range of new applications for distance education, that direct comparisons are not always possible or of value. To draw an analogy, it could be similar to attempting to identifying the social factors of the technology of transportation between the ground based horse and the star bound space shuttle.
The research is exploratory in nature. Sources of information come from traditional library research including books, journals and government publications. The WWW evolved to become a primary source of information. Visited sites were found through the Sociology 4J03 suggested sites list, net search-tools, media references, word of mouth and "site links". "Collaborative Learning" with other course participants provided additional research and conceptual support.
Web pages normally provide links to other related sites. These links led to others and, as is the nature of the Internet, we found ourselves caught in a exponential form of snowballing, leading us to site after site. Although the web search was initiated under the search words "distance education" relevant information evolved to be found under other key words such as "distance learning", "adult education", and "continuing education". Site locations of education and government (Statscan) institutions also proved helpful as well as directories of educational institutions.
Difficulties the researchers had can be attributed to the extent of their familiarity with the technology used in the research and with the WWW in general. For the Internet research, some members found it quite easy to "get lost" after researching numerous sites, and (in spite of aids such as "back", "history", "bookmarks" and "favorites") were not always able to retrace their steps to sites of interest.
Compatibility and familiarity regarding software also was an issue resulting in a stumbling start with computer communications among the researchers. Decisions were made regarding "explorer" vs "netscape" and "word" vs "WordPerfect", as well as retraining and training in the use of the chosen software. Technical knowledge, software compatibility and hardware limitations were also an issue when attempting to download articles and files from some sites.
Our research, of the technologies used by distance education and an analysis of the human factors required for participation, is mainly qualitative in nature. Quantitative data used is from other researchers and used within the context of illustrating the social barriers and opportunities identified. The structure of the our research findings identifies the technologies used by distance education in the library literature and Internet sources; and comments on the requirements needed for people to participate. Participatory variables are discussed noting the opportunities and barriers the technology presents for people wanting to earn post-secondary credits towards diplomas and degrees. When relevant, comparisons with traditional correspondence courses are made. A summary discussion will address social implications of computer technologies for distance education technology .
Transitions
Many institutions still offer industrial era technology based distance education courses. Industrial era distance education has taken a number of technology forms to transfer knowledge over distance. Broadly speaking, they can be categorize by their media usages of audio, images, and text. Audio material has traditionally been offered via records, tapes and radio broadcasts. Images through pictures, graphics, film, video tape, and television. Textual material through print and mail delivery. However, distance education is currently going through a period of technological and social transition. The introduction of computer technologies are creating additional learning options for distance learners, and institutions appear to be adopting the new technologies at different paces.
For example, the University of Waterloo, although they have a distance education web site, only mentions industrial age technologies in the description of its courses. Other institutions are beginning to categorize their course offerings by the technologies which are used in the delivery and not just by subject area. Mohawk College categorizes its distance education courses by the delivery technologies of print, video tape, audio cassette, television, audio graphics, and the Internet. This structure offers a range of options to the student from traditional industrial era delivery modes to CMC delivery modes. Other institutions which specialize in distance education, Athabasca University and OLA (On-line Australia), are becoming very pro-active in CMC/CBL course offerings.
In spite of the variety of delivery methods now available Statistics Canada reported that, in 1993, 70% of distant learners in Canada learned through written materials and only, "One-fifth used other teaching methods that included new telecommunications technologies such as video-conferencing and the Internet."6 The 1993 data is probably conservative compared to present day, however it highlights the transition that is occurring.
The Technologies of Computer Distance Education
As mention, describing the moving target of computer technology is difficult. Kerka describes its' applications to distance education as, DL [distance learning] on the Internet usually takes one of the following forms (Wulf 1996): (1) electronic mail (delivery of course materials, sending in assignments, getting/giving feedback, using a course listserv, i.e., electronic discussion group); (2) bulletin boards/newsgroups for discussion of special topics; (3) downloading of course materials or tutorials; (4) interactive tutorials on the Web; (5) real-time, interactive conferencing using MOO (Multiuser Object Oriented) systems or Internet Relay Chat; (6) "intranets," corporate websites protected from outside access that distribute training for employees; and (7) informatics, the use of online databases, library catalogs, and gopher and websites to acquire information and pursue research related to study.7
As Kerka notes, the different technology forms of Internet distance learning support different purposes and different modes of communication. The selection of technologies to use when creating an Internet distance course is partially determined by course objectives, the type of information which needs to be communicated, and the type of social relationships sought. Another author highlights this point and describes and categorizes the technologies by their communication usage: The kind of media that the CMC system supports is very important for the learning process, because it defines which information can be communicated. If graphics or diagrams are very important in the learning content, then it is necessary that they can be communicated between students and teachers, in that case the CMC system needs to support graphics. Another possibility is that the teacher wants to communicate some attitude to the students, in that case it is important that the CMC system supports video. Table 1 gives an overview of the kinds of media that can be transmitted by each system.8
| CMC / MEDIA | Text | Graphics | Images | Audio | Video |
|
WWW |
x |
x |
x |
x |
|
|
News Groups |
x |
||||
|
IRC |
x |
||||
|
Video / Audio |
x |
x |
x |
WWW (World Wide Web) access allows participants the ability to greatly expand their research options when participating in a distance education course. No longer confined to mailed materials or the local library, participants can access current information from around the world.
E-mail allows for regular and relatively quick contact with other students and the instructor. Walters, (1995) mentions that this form of communication is more democratic as it de-emphasis cultural backgrounds (as well as race and gender), because it is easier to write in second language than speak. E-mail also allows for reflective discussions and more equitable participation as no single student can dominate "the conversation".
The News Groups advantage is that there is no need to go through many messages from different sources to find the one related to a particular course. If the group is a mediated one, all of the material there relates directly to the course.
IRC allows real time communication with an individual or group, but the big disadvantage is that good typing skills are required. Although a real-time, synchronous form of communication, it can be saved for future reference or shared with other group members, through a posting to a news group for example.
Audio/vidio can be used for either presenting information or for real time conferencing. Audio conferencing is the simultaneous connection of participants through the Internet which allows group discussions and debate. It is now possible to include Video connections between people which can also enhance real time communication and conferencing among participants
A further distinction in computer applications is between Computer Mediated Communication and Computer Based Learning. There are two quite different forms of teaching by way of a computer: pre-programmed computer-based learning or CBL and computer-mediated communications. With CBL the student works through pre-designed material, interacting by answering questions embedded within the materials and choosing options or routes through the learning material. The computer program is also capable of using students responses to questions to control routes through the material, and/or to provide feedback on learner responses to questions. CBL programs can also be designed to assess students, and keep records of progress. These records can be assessed by a tutor or instructor. Within these CBL programs different kinds of media can be used such as audio and video.9
While CBL offers some time saving features for the instructor and may have useful applications for testing, a course constructed solely on CBL technologies sacrifices the interactive communication features of CMC. CBL limits the learner to responding within the pre-determined boundaries of the creator of the program and can lead to a feeling of isolation for the student. Using CMC in combination with CBL can resolve these problems when interactive communications are considered beneficial to the course objectives.
Distance Education Communication
Distance education communication forms are categorized as non-interactive or in one of two interactive forms (synchronous or asynchronous). Non-interactive forms of communication involve little of no contact with fellow students and the instructor causing "the problem of isolation" (Bernier, 1996:23)(Kerka, 1995). Traditionally, distance education has primarily been non-interactive and print based in construction; these characteristics have presented limitations on learning. There have been attempts in the past to incorporate other media and inter-activity into distance education:
In spite of these efforts though, the primary distance education communication forms have remained non-interactive.
One of the most significant advantages of CMC distance education is its ability to facilitate interactive communication between the instructor and other students, which can reduce the problems of isolation and offer many new opportunities for interactive participation.
In interactive communication the exchange of information can be real time communication or "synchronous", meaning people are communicating with each other at the same time, or "asynchronous", when people communicate at different times. Synchronous communication has the advantage of immediate response and the facilitation of real time dialogue but requires mutual timed participation. Asynchronous communication allows participants to send and receive messages at their convenience, but sacrifices aspects of immediate response and dialogue.
This factor of interactive a/synchrony communication is an important part of the learning process for people using CMC technology. Some of the positive and negative factor were presented by "Ingrid" In synchronous communication the student is heavily dependent on understanding the presentation and discussions as they happen, and on taking good notes, or on a good memory. At the same time the contributions of both teacher and student are spontaneous (Bates,1995; Mason,1994). In asynchronous communication on the other hand the learner has more time to think about his contribution, but their is less pressure to respond. Which form of communication is most suitable depends on which activities it will be used for. For example asynchronous communication is best suitable for exercises, synchronous communication is very useful for socializing and for discussion. Both can be used.10
The site also offers a table categorizing CMC technologies by their communication form:
| Communication in Time | Synchronous | Asynchronous |
|
WWW |
x |
|
|
|
x |
|
|
Nwes-Groups |
x |
|
|
Video/ Audio |
x |
|
|
IRC |
x |
|
|
White Board |
x |
Selecting Technologies, An Example - University of Phoenix
The variety of CMC technologies offer many options for the delivery of courses. One approach to deciding which technologies to adopt is the University of Phoenix example. The University decided to focus on four key features when constructing its online courses. The features are
These features have a strong student orientation and the University selected the CMC technologies accordingly. The University described its rational in detail on the net at http://www.uophx.edu/online/facfeatu.html (appendix 1). Computer technologies provide a vehicle to allow institutions to incorporate audio, visual and textual material in a variety of interactive and non-interactive communication forms. For distance education, this provides a much greater range of options to address student and faculty needs than the past technologies. Sandra Kerka (1996) states, "Perhaps more than any other distance media, the Internet and the Web help overcome the barriers of time and space in teaching and learning".11
Access
Internet distance education is, of course, dependent on access to the hardware and computer literacy skills. Statistics Canada reported (Franks,1995) on the characteristics of computer owners in 1994. In Canada, 46% of the highest income earners owned home computers as compared to only 9% of the lowest income earners. Computer literacy was 86% among the highest income earners and 28% among the lowest. Further trends were noted based on family structure. 35% of households with children (less than 19 years of age) had computers, compared to 12% of one-person households. Age was also a significant factor regarding computer literacy. Canadians aged 15-24 reported the highest computer literacy rate at 81%, with 35-44 aged people at 66%, and 10% for the over 65 age group.
The statistics show strong socio-economic trends related to computer ownership and thus the ability to access Internet distance education. The high computer literacy rate among the young, "...in part because most young people today are exposed to computers in school" 12, suggests they may be a generation more inclined to take Internet distance education. Statistics Canada also reported (Bernier, 1996:22) that 58% of all distance learners in 1993 were aged 17 to 34, and employed. This further suggests that age and income are significant variables in determining participation in Internet distance education.
Technical Supports
The technologies of computer distance learning are complex and beyond the control of the individual student or instructor. Technical failures at any stage of communication transfers can result in a frustrating learning experience and act as a deterrent to continued participation. A strategy should be incorporated into any distance learning course on the Internet which plans for technical failures and ensures access to technical supports (Kerka,1996). While delivery institutions can often provide technical supports to the instructor, students face the additional potential problems of extensive lost time, and cost, when technical problems occur with their home computer. To the extent possible, Internet distance learning courses should incorporate procedures to address student technical problems when they occur.
Technical Training of The Teachers:
It can be very time consuming to produce and deliver a course on-line, and there is the requirement of knowing and understanding the system by those who will present the program. When it comes, for example to WWW pages development, the teacher will likely be responsible for building 'the page" and for updates, changes and improvements. Teachers also spend additional time as front line consultants for technical and software problems students have, as well as become involved through the chats and e-mail discussions. Teachers who have delivered courses by the Internet comment on the increased time factors but, rather than being a deterrent, they also claim they would continue to teach this way because of its advantages over traditional instruction (Hilt, 1994: 260).
Technical Training of Student
Technical Training of Student Several authors (Hiltz,1994) (Kerka,1996) stress the need for technical training and orientation for students in the delivery of on-line courses. The reasons are obvious in that participants must know the elements of the software and hardware required for course participation. On-line distance education courses will need to address student technical training issues to ensure that participatory factors, and thus grading issues, are not unfairly related to the technical ability of the student.
There is no question that CMC technologies offer many positive features for adults wishing to attain and deliver post-secondary distance education courses. The technologies offer interactive communication and access to resources never before available to the distance learner. Research also indicates (Hilt, 1995) that once exposed, teachers and students generally prefer using CMC systems over traditional education knowledge transferal technologies. CBL can be an effective information transfer system, but continues many of the interactive limitations of traditional distance education technologies.
Major drawbacks to CMC technologies use in distance education, would appear to be access issues. The costs involved in hardware and software acquisition are substantial for students and institutions, as well as costs for technical training and up-dating of equipment. Although the short term solution may be to offer distance education courses based on a range of traditional and computer technologies, we can anticipate difficulties when student desired (or required) courses are not offered in a technological form suited to them.
Technical support structures for computer distance education are also a critical issue. Infra-structure and hardware technologies must be reliable and well supported if this form of distance education is to gain wide usage.
Our focus has been on the adoption of computer technologies in "distance education", and we have knowingly examined distance education from a traditional perspective. However, site-based courses are also adopting the technologies and the distinction between site-based education and distance education is becoming less clear. (Perelman states the distintion will become "irrelevent").
The "transitions issue" mentioned earlier is much more than a change in educational technologies; it is a change in social structure, "from the Industrial age to the Information age". Traditional policy, teaching-learning methods, and agenda setters of education and its social role, are being re-thought and challenged by the potential applications of the technologies. The implications have prompted writers to both embrace and be repulsed by the changes that are occurring. Perelman embraces the changes and advocates "hyperlearning" in a society which, "Prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of academic credentials. In short, just outlaw credentialism."13 While, Postman believes, "The false god of Technology Atricks@ people into believing that all children [and adults?] will have equal access to information and that technology will equalize learning opportunities for the rich and the poor".14
The technologies are the tool, the applications are the human factor. Kerka notes three possible applications for the technologies (1) distance technologies as an add-on to existing institutions; (2) Aknowledge in a box,@ impersonal, individualized, and socially isolating; or (3) a networked learning society that keeps human relationships at the center of learning(Bates 1995).15 Whether we "hyperlearn", go to "virtual classrooms", attend "cyberschoo" or sit in a one room school house, the degree to which human relationships are kept at the centre of learning will measure the success of the technologies as instruments of knowledge transferal between the generations.
1. Computer conferencing exchanges are very much student-centered and involve dynamic and extensive sharing of ideas, opinions and information. As a result, knowledge is acquired as students examine each other's written arguments, positions and ideas memorialized in computer files. The social process of education is preserved through this interactive electronic media. In the Face-to-face classroom environment, the instructor often produces of the verbal exchanges. Research indicates that in the Online learning environment, the instructor produces only 10-15% of the interactions. Thus, the adult learners are much more actively involved in their education, something that the University of Phoenix has found to be essential to adult learning programs. Online research also indicates that communication among students becomes progressively more interactive as they refer back and build upon earlier interactions.
2. All communications in the University of Phoenix Online computer conferencing system ar asynchronous rather than real-time communication. While this naturally imposes some limitations, it has been found that asynchronicity increases access for students since the can control the time and place of their participation. They enjoy greater flexibility since activities need not be simultaneous. Asynchronous communication also enables both students and faculty to synthesize material at their own pace and to provide well-thought-out responses free of the pressure of instantaneous feedback.
3. As anyone who has taught in an "onground" classroom knows, one or two students can often dominate any class discussion while the more reserved or shy students sit silently. In an online, electronic classroom, no one readily dominates. While some students might spend more time communicating, everyone must participate. Participation, therefore, Is more equitably distributed. participation is more active for everyone when there is no competition for the floor. In an online setting, the quality of ideas is the overriding element upon which people are judged. Potentially discriminating factors such as gender, race, handicap, or appearance never enter into the picture in this environment.
4. All online communications are computer text-based, with the students and faculty being able to maintain a common transcript of every communication. This archived transcript greatly enhances opportunities for reflective interaction. At any time, students can review and reflect on the transcripts stored in their computers. These archives invite students to organize and reorganize the body of ideas being developed in their class. Dr. Harasim has found in her research that this feature enables "purposeful, creative cognitive interaction with the content"
1Chronicle of On Line Distance Education and Communication ( October 1995 Volume 9 , issue number # 1 )
2 Fred Lockwood " Open and Distance Learning" Paul Chapman Publishing London 1994
3Rosalyn Retkwa. Internet World Magazine, Volume 7 No. 9 ( c ) 1996
4 Lewis J. Perelman. School's Out. (New York: Avon Books, 1992), 57
5 Ehrmann, S.C. 1995 " Moving Beyond Campus Bound Education" , Chronicle of Higher Education, July 07 1995
6 Rachel Bernier. "Distance Education, beyond correspondence courses", Canadian Social Trends, No 40 (spring 1996), 22
7 Sandra Kerka. "Distance Learning, the Internet, and the World Wide Web," [ http://www.ed.gov/databases/Eric_Digests/ed395214.html ]
8 Ingrid. "Computer Mediated Communication," [http://huizen.dds.nl/~inki/ ]
9 ibid
10 ibid
11 Sandra Kerka. "Distance Learning, the Internet and the World Wide Web." [http:www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed395214.html ]
12 Jeffery Franks, "Preparing for the Information Highway" Canadian Social Trends, No-38 (autumn 1995), 6
13 Lewis Perelman, Schools Out (New York, Avon Books, 1992), 306
14 Neil Postman, "The End Of Education" [http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/-elmurphy/postman.html 1996, p2
15 Sandra Kerka."Distance Learning, the Internet, and the World Wide Web," [http://www.ed.gov/databases/Eric_Digests/ed395214.html ] 1996, p 4